If we look back into ancient history, we will find that the trance like state that we call 'hypnosis' has been used for thousands of years.
From the study of ancient religions and its healing ceremonies we can see that there exists the elements essential to place people into a hypnotic state. By the use of secret rituals, rhythmic chanting, repetitive drum beats, together with strained fixations of the eyes, priests were able to induce catalepsy of the body. This was a kind of knowledge for therapeutic purposes that the priests knew from ancient time.
They were part priest, part physician, and part shaman. In the interpretation of dreams they had supernatural skills and very knowledgeable in the use of medicinal herbs.
The people looking for cure or an insight to their problems in their own universes were called Seekers.
A Seeker had something on their mind, an ailment, an issue, and an inner quest to discover themselves.
They came to seek an insight into their problems, to get a new vision or reason that would heal, guide, or provide comfort.
Hypnosis, suggestion therapy can be traced back over 4000 years to ancient Egypt. They used places known as 'healing sanctuaries' called 'Sleep or Dream Temples.' The path to the Temple was lined with huge steles made of marble, on which were carved inscriptions, describing all the cures, and healing powers of the divine dreams that had taken place in the temple.
People with all sorts of problems, both physical and mental (psychological), were put into a trance like sleep under the influence of herbs and energies from plants known to them. Then priests and priestesses interpreted the person's dream to gain knowledge about the cause of the illnesses and to find a cure for them. Special words were pronounced together with the performance of religious rituals, in order to prepare the patients in the psychological aspects of their minds. Then a suggestion therapy was applied when they entered into a 'hypnotic state.' Before falling asleep they were influenced with these suggestions, in the hope of provoking dreams which were able to reveal the inner connection of the illnesses affecting the individual's life journey in the living world. The priests appeared to be able to cast out the negative energies affecting the mind and body of the person looking for help.
The tradition dates from the time of Im'Hotep. The ancient Egyptians worshiped the priest Im'Hotep and he had many temples dedicated to him.
Im'Hotep was the physician vizier, architect and priest, to the Pharaoh Zoser (2650-2590 BC). He built the step pyramid, which is the 1st pyramid.
In Greece, Sleep Temples of Healing Dreams were renowned as places of great healing and were dedicated to the healing god Asclepius. He took over the role of Im'Hotep. At the height of the cults power, there were 420 temples, spread across the ancient Greek empire.
Asclepius was a healer, and his mythical roots goes back in to the 2nd millennium BC, when he became a semi-god. Over time he evolved into a temple god in his own right. Greek's sleep therapy survived the most in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.
Healing took place while the patient was in a deep trance like sleep. The provoked trance came about by the power of the priests who used special recitations and chanting to open up the gate to the inner world of the patient's mind. This process was known as incubation (Latin: to lie down). The person was kept in this state for up to 3 days, during which time the priests using suggestions tried to enter in the patient's inner mind, through their dreams. The purpose was to obtain the root or cause of sickness or the entity in charge, by name, that brought the negative energy affecting the mental or physical health of the individual. The method used by the priests or healers helped the patients to obtain the cure for their illnesses. The temples were a place of spirits, and mysterious powers, a place to find mental and physical healing, since each individual was induced to open up its own spiritual universe and the priests were just the drivers of the healing energy able to restore either physical or mental health of the seeker.
Asclepius' daughters were Hy'Gea and Pan'Acea. A Kline was a special place or a sacred skin set out around the temple where the sick person reclined to enter the dream state. From these names we have derived the words, Panacea, Hygiene, and Clinic.
Wednesday, September 14, 2016
Tuesday, September 13, 2016
WHAT IS TEMPTATION ?
Temptation is a desire to engage in short-term urges for enjoyment, that threatens long-term goals in the context of self-control and ego depletion.
Self-control is the ability to control self emotions and behavior in the face of temptations and impulses in order to achieve goals. It is a mental muscle that become both strengthened and fatigued. In the short term, overuse of self-control will lead to depletion. However, in the long term, the use of self-control can strengthen and improve over time. Self-control plays a valuable role in the functioning of the self on both individualistic and interpersonal levels.
Ego depletion refers to the idea that self-control or will-power draw upon a pool of mental resources that can be used up. When the energy for mental activity is low, self-control is typically impaired, generating a state of ego depletion, impairing the ability to control oneself.
Temptation is also described as coaxing or inducing a person into committing such an act in many diverse contexts or situations, by manipulation or otherwise of curiosity, desire or fear of loss.
The role of glucose as a specific form of energy needed for self-control has been explored. Several recent experiments have found that the depletion effects can be reversed by simply tasting any sweet fruit, because of its psycho-physiological signaling effects.
The underlying neural processes associated with self-control failure have been recently examined using neuro-physiological techniques. According to cognitive and neurons' behavior, a conflict-monitoring / error-detection system identifies 'discrepancies' between 'intended goals' and 'actual behaviors.'
Error-related negativity signals are an electrical activity, in a wave form, of the brain generated in the anterior cortex and measured through electro-encephalograms and time-locked to an external event (visual stimulus) or a response (error). A robust wave frequency were observed after knowledgeable errors had been committed during various choice tasks, even when the participant was not explicit aware of making an error, however, in this case scenario the wave lengths were weaker.
These findings demonstrated evidence that depletion experienced after exerting short-term self-control, can weaken neural mechanisms responsible for conflict monitoring.
Younger people are more susceptible to the effects of ego depletion, given that the areas of the brain involved in self-control continue to develop until the mid 20s.
Ego depletion has also been implicating in guilt and pro-social behavior. The feeling of guilt is necessary in order to facilitate adaptive human interactions. It is dependent on the individual's ability to reflect on past actions and behaviors. Ego depletion has been shown to hinder the ability to engage in such reflection, thereby making it difficult to experience guilt. Since guilt leads to pro-social behavior, ego depletion will therefore reduce the good deeds that result from a guilty conscience.
In a society where a state of ego depletion exists in its young generation, the individuals are impaired of the ability to self-regulate their own emotions, making them vulnerable to a wide range of undesirable and mal-adaptive behaviors, such as acts of aggression. Knowledge and strategies to counteract it would therefore, be highly beneficial in various real-life situations.
In the world of consumerism, individuals are faced with decisions and choices that require the use of valuable energy resources in order to make the right and useful purchases while resisting temptation of impulsive or unnecessary ones.
The complexity of consumer decisions, with advertisement telling consumers how they deserve and must have a product, can generate in itself an ego depletion. Having many options consumers feel overwhelmed, causing mental fatigue and frustration. Fatigue and frustration stem from deals with specific requirements on ways to purchase a product, along with spending effort on deciding which store has the best deal or trying to get to the store. People then be led to buy the high priced or cheapest product. As soon as the consumers get low self-control they become more susceptible to buy products of high status, being now in the frequency of motivation and persistence, even to the point of pay more for a branded product. This will lead these consumers to have a sense of empowerment, the feeling to be in control, feeling that the brand name of the product is more beneficial and secure, and in this sense mistakingly overcoming their ego depleted states.
In a recent experiment, it was shown that inducing a positive mood can buffer the impairing effects of ego depletion, in the same way that the taste of a fruit can boost the neural mechanisms of it. Positive mood is generated by getting individuals with joyful energies capable of switch on the individual sense of humor. It seemed to allow people to recover faster from ego-depletion and furthermore, improved their ability to self-regulate. The existence of a spare reservoir of mental energy ultimately explains why these motivators can buffer the effects of mild or moderate ego depletion.
Self-control can be replenish and thus the immediate effects of an individual's depleted self-control can be overcome, and that an individual must be able to identify the presence of temptation (short term desire) before self-control may be affected by the outcome.
Self-control is the ability to control self emotions and behavior in the face of temptations and impulses in order to achieve goals. It is a mental muscle that become both strengthened and fatigued. In the short term, overuse of self-control will lead to depletion. However, in the long term, the use of self-control can strengthen and improve over time. Self-control plays a valuable role in the functioning of the self on both individualistic and interpersonal levels.
Ego depletion refers to the idea that self-control or will-power draw upon a pool of mental resources that can be used up. When the energy for mental activity is low, self-control is typically impaired, generating a state of ego depletion, impairing the ability to control oneself.
Temptation is also described as coaxing or inducing a person into committing such an act in many diverse contexts or situations, by manipulation or otherwise of curiosity, desire or fear of loss.
The role of glucose as a specific form of energy needed for self-control has been explored. Several recent experiments have found that the depletion effects can be reversed by simply tasting any sweet fruit, because of its psycho-physiological signaling effects.
The underlying neural processes associated with self-control failure have been recently examined using neuro-physiological techniques. According to cognitive and neurons' behavior, a conflict-monitoring / error-detection system identifies 'discrepancies' between 'intended goals' and 'actual behaviors.'
Error-related negativity signals are an electrical activity, in a wave form, of the brain generated in the anterior cortex and measured through electro-encephalograms and time-locked to an external event (visual stimulus) or a response (error). A robust wave frequency were observed after knowledgeable errors had been committed during various choice tasks, even when the participant was not explicit aware of making an error, however, in this case scenario the wave lengths were weaker.
These findings demonstrated evidence that depletion experienced after exerting short-term self-control, can weaken neural mechanisms responsible for conflict monitoring.
Younger people are more susceptible to the effects of ego depletion, given that the areas of the brain involved in self-control continue to develop until the mid 20s.
Ego depletion has also been implicating in guilt and pro-social behavior. The feeling of guilt is necessary in order to facilitate adaptive human interactions. It is dependent on the individual's ability to reflect on past actions and behaviors. Ego depletion has been shown to hinder the ability to engage in such reflection, thereby making it difficult to experience guilt. Since guilt leads to pro-social behavior, ego depletion will therefore reduce the good deeds that result from a guilty conscience.
In a society where a state of ego depletion exists in its young generation, the individuals are impaired of the ability to self-regulate their own emotions, making them vulnerable to a wide range of undesirable and mal-adaptive behaviors, such as acts of aggression. Knowledge and strategies to counteract it would therefore, be highly beneficial in various real-life situations.
In the world of consumerism, individuals are faced with decisions and choices that require the use of valuable energy resources in order to make the right and useful purchases while resisting temptation of impulsive or unnecessary ones.
The complexity of consumer decisions, with advertisement telling consumers how they deserve and must have a product, can generate in itself an ego depletion. Having many options consumers feel overwhelmed, causing mental fatigue and frustration. Fatigue and frustration stem from deals with specific requirements on ways to purchase a product, along with spending effort on deciding which store has the best deal or trying to get to the store. People then be led to buy the high priced or cheapest product. As soon as the consumers get low self-control they become more susceptible to buy products of high status, being now in the frequency of motivation and persistence, even to the point of pay more for a branded product. This will lead these consumers to have a sense of empowerment, the feeling to be in control, feeling that the brand name of the product is more beneficial and secure, and in this sense mistakingly overcoming their ego depleted states.
In a recent experiment, it was shown that inducing a positive mood can buffer the impairing effects of ego depletion, in the same way that the taste of a fruit can boost the neural mechanisms of it. Positive mood is generated by getting individuals with joyful energies capable of switch on the individual sense of humor. It seemed to allow people to recover faster from ego-depletion and furthermore, improved their ability to self-regulate. The existence of a spare reservoir of mental energy ultimately explains why these motivators can buffer the effects of mild or moderate ego depletion.
Self-control can be replenish and thus the immediate effects of an individual's depleted self-control can be overcome, and that an individual must be able to identify the presence of temptation (short term desire) before self-control may be affected by the outcome.
Friday, September 9, 2016
THE 9 CIRCLES OF HELL OF DANTE IN HIS DIVINE COMEDY.
Hell, the 1st part of Dante's Divine Comedy describes the poet's vision of Hell. The story begins with the narrator, who is the poet himself, being lost in a dark wood where he is attacked by 3 beasts which he cannot escape. He is rescued by the Roman poet Virgil who is sent by Beatrice (Dante's ideal woman). Together, they begin the journey into the underworld or the 9 Circles of Hell.
- 1st Circle (Limbo) is resided by virtuous non-Christian and unbaptized individuals who are punished with eternity in an inferior form of Heaven. They live in a castle with 7 gates which symbolize the 7 virtues.
- 2nd Circle (Lust), Dante and Virgil find people who were overcome by lust. They are punished by being blown violently back and forth by strong winds, preventing them to find peace. Strong winds symbolize the restlessness of a person who is led by desire for fleshy pleasures.
- 3rd Circle (Gluttony), Dante and Virgil find souls of gluttons who are overlooked by a worm-monster Cerberus. Sinners are punished by being forced to lie in a vile slush that is produced by a never ending icy rain. The vile slush symbolizes personal degradation of one who overindulges in food, drink and other worldly pleasures, while the inability to see others lying nearby represents the gluttons' selfishness and coldness.
- 4th Circle (Greed), Dante and Virgil see the souls of people who are punished fro greed. They are divided into 2 groups -those who hoarded possessions and those who lavishly spent it -jousting. They use great weights as a weapon, pushing it with their chests which symbolizes their selfish drive for fortune during their lifetime. The two groups that are guarded by a character called Pluto are so occupied with their activity that the two poets don't even try to speak to them.
- 5th Circle (Anger) is where the wrathful and sullen are punished for their sins. Transported on a boat by Phlegyas, Dante and Virgil see the wrathful fighting each other on the surface of the River Styx and the sullen gurgling beneath the surface of the water. The punishment reflect the type of sin committed during lifetime.
- 6th Circle (Heresy), Dante and Virgil see heretics who are condemned to eternity in flaming tombs.
- 7th Circle (Violence) is divided into 3 rings. The outer ring houses murderers and others who were violent to other people and property. In the middle ring, the poet sees suicides who have been turned into trees and bushes which are fed upon by harpies. But he also sees here profligates, chased and torn to pieces by dogs. In the inner ring are blasphemers and sodomites, resident in a desert of burning sand and burning rain falling from the sky.
- 8th Circle (Fraudulent) is resided by the fraudulent. Dante and Virgil reach it on the back of Geryon, a flying monster with different natures, just like the fraudulent. This circle is divided into 10 Bolgias or stony ditches with bridges between them. In the 1st Bolgia, Dante sees panderers and seducer. In the 2nd Bolgia he finds flatterers. After crossing the bridge to the 3rd Bolgia, he and Virgil see those who are guilty of simony. After crossing another bridge between the ditches to the 4th Bolgia, they find sorcerers and false prophets. In the 5h Bolgia are housed corrupt politicians. In the 6th Bolgia are the hypocrites, and in the remaining 4 ditches, Dante finds thieves (7th), evil counselors and advisers (8th), divisive individuals (9th) and various falsifiers such as alchemists, perjurers, and counterfeits (10th).
- 9th Circle is divided into 4 rounds according to the seriousness of the sin though all residents are frozen in an icy Lake. Those who committed more severe sin are deeper within the ice. Each of the 4 rounds is named after an individual who personifies the sin. Thus the 1st round is named Caina after Cain who killed his brother Abel. The 2nd round is named Antenora after Anthenor of Troy who was Priam's counselor during the Trojan War. The 3rd round is named Ptolomaea after Ptolemy, son of Abulus. The 4th round is named Judecca after Judas Iscariot, the one who betrayed Jesus with a kiss.
- 1st Circle (Limbo) is resided by virtuous non-Christian and unbaptized individuals who are punished with eternity in an inferior form of Heaven. They live in a castle with 7 gates which symbolize the 7 virtues.
- 2nd Circle (Lust), Dante and Virgil find people who were overcome by lust. They are punished by being blown violently back and forth by strong winds, preventing them to find peace. Strong winds symbolize the restlessness of a person who is led by desire for fleshy pleasures.
- 3rd Circle (Gluttony), Dante and Virgil find souls of gluttons who are overlooked by a worm-monster Cerberus. Sinners are punished by being forced to lie in a vile slush that is produced by a never ending icy rain. The vile slush symbolizes personal degradation of one who overindulges in food, drink and other worldly pleasures, while the inability to see others lying nearby represents the gluttons' selfishness and coldness.
- 4th Circle (Greed), Dante and Virgil see the souls of people who are punished fro greed. They are divided into 2 groups -those who hoarded possessions and those who lavishly spent it -jousting. They use great weights as a weapon, pushing it with their chests which symbolizes their selfish drive for fortune during their lifetime. The two groups that are guarded by a character called Pluto are so occupied with their activity that the two poets don't even try to speak to them.
- 5th Circle (Anger) is where the wrathful and sullen are punished for their sins. Transported on a boat by Phlegyas, Dante and Virgil see the wrathful fighting each other on the surface of the River Styx and the sullen gurgling beneath the surface of the water. The punishment reflect the type of sin committed during lifetime.
- 6th Circle (Heresy), Dante and Virgil see heretics who are condemned to eternity in flaming tombs.
- 7th Circle (Violence) is divided into 3 rings. The outer ring houses murderers and others who were violent to other people and property. In the middle ring, the poet sees suicides who have been turned into trees and bushes which are fed upon by harpies. But he also sees here profligates, chased and torn to pieces by dogs. In the inner ring are blasphemers and sodomites, resident in a desert of burning sand and burning rain falling from the sky.
- 8th Circle (Fraudulent) is resided by the fraudulent. Dante and Virgil reach it on the back of Geryon, a flying monster with different natures, just like the fraudulent. This circle is divided into 10 Bolgias or stony ditches with bridges between them. In the 1st Bolgia, Dante sees panderers and seducer. In the 2nd Bolgia he finds flatterers. After crossing the bridge to the 3rd Bolgia, he and Virgil see those who are guilty of simony. After crossing another bridge between the ditches to the 4th Bolgia, they find sorcerers and false prophets. In the 5h Bolgia are housed corrupt politicians. In the 6th Bolgia are the hypocrites, and in the remaining 4 ditches, Dante finds thieves (7th), evil counselors and advisers (8th), divisive individuals (9th) and various falsifiers such as alchemists, perjurers, and counterfeits (10th).
- 9th Circle is divided into 4 rounds according to the seriousness of the sin though all residents are frozen in an icy Lake. Those who committed more severe sin are deeper within the ice. Each of the 4 rounds is named after an individual who personifies the sin. Thus the 1st round is named Caina after Cain who killed his brother Abel. The 2nd round is named Antenora after Anthenor of Troy who was Priam's counselor during the Trojan War. The 3rd round is named Ptolomaea after Ptolemy, son of Abulus. The 4th round is named Judecca after Judas Iscariot, the one who betrayed Jesus with a kiss.
Sunday, September 4, 2016
THE AREAS OF THE BRAIN THAT DEAL WITH EMOTIONS.
The limbic system is a set structures, located in the highly developed part of the brain, interconnected on both sides of the thalamus, immediately underneath the cerebrum.
The limbic system is responsible for processing a variety of functions and controlling emotions, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction in the human brain, and they rely on the nervous system to help people express and convey thoughts, ideas and feelings.
Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic and nervous system, and it has a great deal to do with the formation of memories and arousal feelings of stimulation.
The main areas involved with emotions are interconnected intensively and none of them is solely responsible for any specific emotional state. However, some contribute more than others to this or that kind of emotion. Emotions enable us to react to specific situations -for example, anger or fear will set our heart racing, and feeling happy will make us smile.
One of the key areas of our brain that deals with showing, recognizing, and controlling the body's reaction to emotions is known as the limbic system. We shall review now, one by one, the best known structures of the limbic system:
- Amygdala is a little almond shaped structure, deep inside the antero-inferior region of the temporal lobe. It connects with the hippo-campus, the septal nuclei, the prefrontal area and the media dorsal nucleus of the thalamus. These connections make it possible for the amigdala to play its important role on the mediation and control of major affective activities like friendship, love and affection, on the expression of mood, and mainly, of fear, rage and aggression.
The amygdala, being the center for identification of danger, is fundamental for self preservation. When triggered, it gives rise to fear and anxiety which lead the animal into a stage of alertness, getting ready to flight or fight. Experimental destruction of both amygdalas (there are 2 of them, one in each hemisphere) tames the animal, which becomes sexually non-discriminative, deprived of affection and indifferent to danger. The electrical stimulus of these structures elicits crises of violent aggressiveness. Individuals with marked lesions of the amygdala, loose the affective meaning of the perception of an outside information, like the sight of a well known person. The subject knows, exactly, who the person is, but is not capable to decide whether he likes or dislikes him/her.
- Hippo-Campus, a tiny, sea-horse shaped structure, is particularly involved in memory phenomena, specially with the formation of long-term memory (the one that, sometimes, lasts forever). When both hippo-campus (right and left) are destroyed, nothing can be retained in the memory. The subject quickly forgets ant recently received message. The intact hippo-campus allows the animal to compare the conditions of a present threat with similar past experiences, thus enabling it to choose the best option, in order to guarantee its own survival.
- Fornix and Para-hippo-campal gyrus, both are important connecting pathways of the limbic system.
- Thalamus activation (stimulation of the media dorsal and anterior nuclei) is associated with changes in emotional reactivity. However, the importance of these nuclei on the regulation of emotional behavior, is not due to the thalamus itself, but to the connections of these nuclei with other limbic system structures. The media dorsal nucleus makes connections with cortical zones of the pre-frontal area and with the hypo-thalamus. The anterior nuclei connect with the mamillary bodies, and through them, via fornix, with the hippo-campus and the cingulate gyrus, thus taking part in the Papez's circuit.
- Hypo-Thalamus, this structure has ample connections with the other pros-encephalic areas and the mes-encephalus. Lesions of the hypo-thalamic nuclei interfere with several vegetative functions and some of the so-called motivated behaviors, like thermal regulation, sexuality, combativeness, hunger and thirst. The hypo-thalamus is also believed to play a role in emotion. Specifically, its lateral parts seem to be involved with pleasure and rage, while the median part is like to be involved with aversion, displeasure and a tendency to uncontrollable and loud laughing. However, in general terms, the hypo-thalamus has more to do with the expression (symptomatic manifestations) of emotions than with the genesis of the affective states. When the physical symptoms of emotion appear, the threat they pose returns, via hypo-thalamus, to the limbic centers forward to the pre-frontal nuclei, increasing anxiety.
This negative feedback mechanism can be so strong as to generate a situation of panic.
- Cingulate gyrus is located in the medial side of the brain between the cingulate sulcus and the corpus callosum (principal fiber bundle connecting the two cerebral hemispheres) and serves as a pathway that transmit messages between the inner and outer portions of the limbic system. There is still much to be learned about this gyrus, but it is already known that its frontal part coordinates smells and sights with pleasant memories of previous emotions. This region also participates in the emotional reaction to pain and in the regulation of aggressive behavior. Wild animals, submitted to the ablation of the cingulate gyrus (cingulectomy), become totally tamed. The cutting of a single bundle of this gyrus (cingulotomy) reduces pre-existent depression and anxiety levels, by interrupting across the Papez's circuit.
- Brain-Stem is the region responsible for the 'emotional reactions,' (indeed, they are just reflex answers) of inferior vertebrates, like reptiles and amphibians. The involved structures are the reticular formation, and the locus coeruleus, a concentrated mass of nor-epinephrine secreting neurons. It is important to stress that, even in humans, these primitive structures remain active, not only as an alerting mechanism, vital for survival, but in the maintenance of the sleep-awake cycle.
- Ventral Teg-Mental Area is located in the mes-encephalic part of the brain stem, inside the area there is a compact group of dopamine-secreting neurons whose axons end in the nucleus accumbens (meso-limbic dopaminergic pathway). The spontaneous firing or the electrical stimulation of neurons belonging to that region produce pleasurable sensations, some of them similar to orgasm. Many people who, for a genetic error, have a reduction of D2 (dopamine) receptors in the accumbens nucleus, become, sooner or later, incapable to obtain gratification from the common pleasures of life. Thus, they seek atypical and noxious 'plesure' alternatives, like alcoholism, cocaine addiction, impulsive gambling and compulsion for sweet foods. Certain brain-stem structures, like the nuclei of the cranial nerves, stimulated by impulses coming from the cortex and the striatum (a sub-cortical formation), are responsible for the physiognomic: expressions of anger, joy, sadness, tenderness, etc.
- Septum area has been associated with different kinds of pleasant sensations, mainly those related to sexual experiences. The septal region lies anteriorly to the thalamus. Inside it, one finds the centers of orgasm (four for women and one for men).
- Pre-Frontal Area comprises the entire non-motor anterior region of the frontal lobe. It underwent a great deal of development during the evolution of mammals. It is specially large in man and in some species of dolphins. It does not belong to the traditional limbic circuit, but its intense bi-directional connections with the thalamus, amygdala, and other sub-cortical structures, account for the important role it plays in the genesis and, specially, in the expression of affective states. When the pre-frontal cortex suffers a lesion, the subject looses his sense of social responsibility as well as the capacity for concentration and abstraction. In some cases, although consciousness and some cognitive functions, like speech, remain intact, the subject can no longer solve problems, even the most elementary ones.
When pre-frontal lobotomy was used for treatment of certain psychiatric disturbances, the patients entered into a stage of "affective buffer," no longer showing any sign of joy, sadness, hope or despair.
In their words or attitudes, no traces of affection could be detected.
The limbic system is responsible for processing a variety of functions and controlling emotions, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction in the human brain, and they rely on the nervous system to help people express and convey thoughts, ideas and feelings.
Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic and nervous system, and it has a great deal to do with the formation of memories and arousal feelings of stimulation.
The main areas involved with emotions are interconnected intensively and none of them is solely responsible for any specific emotional state. However, some contribute more than others to this or that kind of emotion. Emotions enable us to react to specific situations -for example, anger or fear will set our heart racing, and feeling happy will make us smile.
One of the key areas of our brain that deals with showing, recognizing, and controlling the body's reaction to emotions is known as the limbic system. We shall review now, one by one, the best known structures of the limbic system:
- Amygdala is a little almond shaped structure, deep inside the antero-inferior region of the temporal lobe. It connects with the hippo-campus, the septal nuclei, the prefrontal area and the media dorsal nucleus of the thalamus. These connections make it possible for the amigdala to play its important role on the mediation and control of major affective activities like friendship, love and affection, on the expression of mood, and mainly, of fear, rage and aggression.
The amygdala, being the center for identification of danger, is fundamental for self preservation. When triggered, it gives rise to fear and anxiety which lead the animal into a stage of alertness, getting ready to flight or fight. Experimental destruction of both amygdalas (there are 2 of them, one in each hemisphere) tames the animal, which becomes sexually non-discriminative, deprived of affection and indifferent to danger. The electrical stimulus of these structures elicits crises of violent aggressiveness. Individuals with marked lesions of the amygdala, loose the affective meaning of the perception of an outside information, like the sight of a well known person. The subject knows, exactly, who the person is, but is not capable to decide whether he likes or dislikes him/her.
- Hippo-Campus, a tiny, sea-horse shaped structure, is particularly involved in memory phenomena, specially with the formation of long-term memory (the one that, sometimes, lasts forever). When both hippo-campus (right and left) are destroyed, nothing can be retained in the memory. The subject quickly forgets ant recently received message. The intact hippo-campus allows the animal to compare the conditions of a present threat with similar past experiences, thus enabling it to choose the best option, in order to guarantee its own survival.
- Fornix and Para-hippo-campal gyrus, both are important connecting pathways of the limbic system.
- Thalamus activation (stimulation of the media dorsal and anterior nuclei) is associated with changes in emotional reactivity. However, the importance of these nuclei on the regulation of emotional behavior, is not due to the thalamus itself, but to the connections of these nuclei with other limbic system structures. The media dorsal nucleus makes connections with cortical zones of the pre-frontal area and with the hypo-thalamus. The anterior nuclei connect with the mamillary bodies, and through them, via fornix, with the hippo-campus and the cingulate gyrus, thus taking part in the Papez's circuit.
- Hypo-Thalamus, this structure has ample connections with the other pros-encephalic areas and the mes-encephalus. Lesions of the hypo-thalamic nuclei interfere with several vegetative functions and some of the so-called motivated behaviors, like thermal regulation, sexuality, combativeness, hunger and thirst. The hypo-thalamus is also believed to play a role in emotion. Specifically, its lateral parts seem to be involved with pleasure and rage, while the median part is like to be involved with aversion, displeasure and a tendency to uncontrollable and loud laughing. However, in general terms, the hypo-thalamus has more to do with the expression (symptomatic manifestations) of emotions than with the genesis of the affective states. When the physical symptoms of emotion appear, the threat they pose returns, via hypo-thalamus, to the limbic centers forward to the pre-frontal nuclei, increasing anxiety.
This negative feedback mechanism can be so strong as to generate a situation of panic.
- Cingulate gyrus is located in the medial side of the brain between the cingulate sulcus and the corpus callosum (principal fiber bundle connecting the two cerebral hemispheres) and serves as a pathway that transmit messages between the inner and outer portions of the limbic system. There is still much to be learned about this gyrus, but it is already known that its frontal part coordinates smells and sights with pleasant memories of previous emotions. This region also participates in the emotional reaction to pain and in the regulation of aggressive behavior. Wild animals, submitted to the ablation of the cingulate gyrus (cingulectomy), become totally tamed. The cutting of a single bundle of this gyrus (cingulotomy) reduces pre-existent depression and anxiety levels, by interrupting across the Papez's circuit.
- Brain-Stem is the region responsible for the 'emotional reactions,' (indeed, they are just reflex answers) of inferior vertebrates, like reptiles and amphibians. The involved structures are the reticular formation, and the locus coeruleus, a concentrated mass of nor-epinephrine secreting neurons. It is important to stress that, even in humans, these primitive structures remain active, not only as an alerting mechanism, vital for survival, but in the maintenance of the sleep-awake cycle.
- Ventral Teg-Mental Area is located in the mes-encephalic part of the brain stem, inside the area there is a compact group of dopamine-secreting neurons whose axons end in the nucleus accumbens (meso-limbic dopaminergic pathway). The spontaneous firing or the electrical stimulation of neurons belonging to that region produce pleasurable sensations, some of them similar to orgasm. Many people who, for a genetic error, have a reduction of D2 (dopamine) receptors in the accumbens nucleus, become, sooner or later, incapable to obtain gratification from the common pleasures of life. Thus, they seek atypical and noxious 'plesure' alternatives, like alcoholism, cocaine addiction, impulsive gambling and compulsion for sweet foods. Certain brain-stem structures, like the nuclei of the cranial nerves, stimulated by impulses coming from the cortex and the striatum (a sub-cortical formation), are responsible for the physiognomic: expressions of anger, joy, sadness, tenderness, etc.
- Septum area has been associated with different kinds of pleasant sensations, mainly those related to sexual experiences. The septal region lies anteriorly to the thalamus. Inside it, one finds the centers of orgasm (four for women and one for men).
- Pre-Frontal Area comprises the entire non-motor anterior region of the frontal lobe. It underwent a great deal of development during the evolution of mammals. It is specially large in man and in some species of dolphins. It does not belong to the traditional limbic circuit, but its intense bi-directional connections with the thalamus, amygdala, and other sub-cortical structures, account for the important role it plays in the genesis and, specially, in the expression of affective states. When the pre-frontal cortex suffers a lesion, the subject looses his sense of social responsibility as well as the capacity for concentration and abstraction. In some cases, although consciousness and some cognitive functions, like speech, remain intact, the subject can no longer solve problems, even the most elementary ones.
When pre-frontal lobotomy was used for treatment of certain psychiatric disturbances, the patients entered into a stage of "affective buffer," no longer showing any sign of joy, sadness, hope or despair.
In their words or attitudes, no traces of affection could be detected.
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